Eyes

Related Combining Forms: opt/i, opt/o, optic/o, opthalm/o

Primary Function: Receptor organs for the sense of sight.

Iris

Related Combining Forms: ir/I, ir/o, irid/o, irit/o

Primary Function: Controls the amount of light entering the eye.

Lens

Related Combining Forms: phac/o, phak/o

Primary Function: Focuses rays of light on the retina.

Retina

Related Combining Forms: retin/o

Primary Function: Converts light rays into electrical impulses to transmit to the brain.

Lacrimal apparatus

Related Combining Forms: dacryocyst/o, lacrim/o

Primary Function: Accessory structure of the eyes that produce, store, and remove tears.

Ears

Related Combining Forms: acous/o, acoust/o, audi/o, audit/o, ot/o

Primary Function: Contains receptors for the sense of hearing as well as balance/equilibrium.

Outer ear

Related Combining Forms: pinn/i

Primary Function: Transmits sound waves to the middle ear.

Middle ear

Related Combining Forms: myring/o, tympan/o

Primary Function: Transmits sound waves to the inner ear.

Inner ear

Related Combining Forms: labyrinth/o

Primary Function: Receives sound vibrations and transmits them to the brain; also contains receptors for equilibrium and balance.

Eye Structures

Fibrous Layer: This outermost layer is protective for the eye and serves as the attachment site for muscles oblique and rectus muscles) which move the eye. This fibrous layer includes the Sclera- the whites of the eye which is irregularly arrange collagen providing protection Cornea- continuous with the sclera but clear to allow light to pass through; it has no blood supply (avascular) Vascular Layer Iris- pigmented layer which surrounds the pupil and contains muscle which can control light passing through Ciliary body- ring of smooth muscle that surrounds lens and can control its shape for focusing of light Choroid- inner pigmented layer which has a rich blood supply Neural Layer Retina- contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) which are the receptors for light. The location with the highest number of photoreceptors and thus sharpest point of vision is the macula lutea with the fovea centralis. Optic nerve- exits the neural layer at the optic disk (blind spot) and carries information about vision to the brain

Eyelids, eyebrows and eyelashes- Help protect the eyeball from foreign material, excessive light, and injuries Conjunctiva- Transparent mucous membrane; protects exposed eyeball surface Lacrimal apparatus- contains glands which secrete tears into a canal to drain into the nasolacrimal duct

Functions of the Eye Accommodation- process by which eye makes adjustments for seeing objects near and far such as changing the shape of the lens Convergence- Simultaneous inward movement of the eyes toward each other to maintain singular binocular vision as an objects comes nearer Visual acuity- the ability to distinguish object details and shape at a distance Refraction- the ability of the lens to bend light rays so they focus back on photoreceptors in the retina Medical Specialties of the Eye Opthalmologist – physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating the full spectrum of diseases and disorders of the eyes, from vision correction to eye surgery Optometrist- holds a doctor of optometry degree and provides primary eye car, including diagnosing eye diseases and conditions and measuring the accuracy of vision to determine whether corrective lenses are needed Optician- a health care practitioner who designs, fits and dispenses lens for vision correction

Pathology of the Eye While there are many pathologies of the eye and ear, here are some terms which you may encounter more frequently in the medical field.

Conjunctivitis: pinkeye Xerophthalmia (dry eye): drying of eye surfaces, including the conjunctiva Uvea, cornea, and sclera Cataract: loss of transparency of the lens Diabetic retinopathy: damage to the retina; complication of uncontrolled diabetes Photopsia: flashes of light Retinal detachment (detached retina or retinal tears): separation of some or all of the light-sensitive retina from the choroid Retinoblastoma: cancer caused by the abnormal growth of retinal cells Glaucoma- Group of diseases: increased intraocular pressure; causes damage to the retinal nerve fibers and the optic nerve Macular degeneration (MD)- Gradually progressive condition: macula at the center of the retina is damaged
Diplopia (double vision): perception of two images of a single object Color blindness: inability to perceive certain colors Photophobia: excessive sensitivity to light Presbyopia: common changes in the eyes that occur with aging Strabismus- also known as crossed eyes; misalignment of the eyes, causing one eye to deviate inward (esotropia) toward the nose, or outward (exotropia), while the other eye remains focused. Astigmatism: eye does not focus properly; uneven curvatures of the cornea Hyperopia (farsightedness): light rays focus beyond the retina Myopia (nearsightedness): light rays focus in front of the retina

Ear

the outer ear contains the pinna (earlobe) and the external auditory canal. Functionally, the pinna funnels sounds through the external auditory canal into the inner ear. This canal is filled with cerumen (earwax) which helps protect the ear.

Structures of the ear shown in cross-section.

Structures of the ear shown in cross-section.

The middle ear contains the three smallest bones in the body, termed the auditory ossicles. These are named the malleus, incus, and stapes. As sound waves arrive to the middle ear, it vibrates the tympanic membrane (eardrum) which then moves the ossicles, sort of like wind chimes. This is how sound is conducted from outer ear to inner ear. In addition, we find the eustachian tube (pharyngotympanic) which helps equalize pressure from the outside world to the inner ear.

The inner ear contains the snail shaped cochlea. The sound waves travel from the middle ear to the inner ear through the oval window and into the cochlea. This distortion of the cochlea triggers the cochlear nerve transmitting the sensation of sound to the brain. The inner ear also contains fluid-filled areas which sense changes in equilibrium and balance. These areas are termed the semicircular canals and vestibule.

Medical Specialties of the Ear Audiologist- specializes in the measurement of hearing function and in the rehabilitation of persons with hearing impairments Otolaryngologist- ear, nose and throat physician Speech-language pathologist- can be involved in numerous medical areas including audiology; these practitioners help patients who have problems related to swallowing, speech and communication disorders Pathology of the Ear Otalgia (earache): pain in the ear Otomycosis: fungal infection Otopyorrhea: flow of pus from the ear Otorrhea: any discharge from the ear Otitis media: inflammation of the middle ear Otosclerosis: ankylosis of the bones of the middle ear Vertigo: sense of whirling, dizziness, and loss of balance Ménière’s disease- Relatively rare chronic disorder wherein the amount of fluid in the inner ear increases intermittently Tinnitus- Ringing, buzzing, or roaring sound in one or both ears Acoustic neuroma- Benign brain tumor adjacent to the cranial nerve Deafness: complete or partial loss of hearing Conductive hearing loss: sound waves prevented from passing to the inner ear Sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness): damaged nerve or hair cells in the ear

Integumentary System

There are six functions of the integument. I like to use the acronym “SHAPES” to help remember these functions.

Sensation –contains numerous sensory receptors that detect touch, heat, cold and pain Heat regulation –can sweat and dilate blood vessels near the surface to release heat Absorption - provides protection from a number of environmental hazards including absorption of ultraviolet light (UV) before it damages deeper tissues Protection- protects the body from mechanical trauma, provides a barrier to pathogens and can secrete antimicrobial substances Excretion/secretion- makes a small, but significant contribution to the excretion of metabolic waste Synthesis- melanin, keratin, VitaminD

Skin

Related Combining Forms: cutane/o, dermato/o, derm/o

Primary Function: Intact skin is the first line of defense for the immune system. It also waterproofs the body and provides the major receptors for sensation.

Sebaceous glands

Related Combining Forms: seb/o

Primary Function: Secrete sebum (oil) to lubricate the skin and prevent bacterial growth.

Sweat glands

Related Combining Forms: hidr/o

Primary Function: Secrete sweat to regulate body temperature and water content and excrete some metabolic waste.

Hair

Related Combining Forms: pil/i, pil/o

Primary Function: Aids in controlling the loss of body heat.

Nails

Related Combining Forms: onchy/o, ungu/o

Primary Function: Protects the dorsal surface of the last bone of each finger and toe.

Layers of the Skin Epidermis Outermost layer Contains squamous epithelial tissue for protection against abrasion Has keratin, a tough and water-repellent protein Contains melanocytes, cells that produce the pigment melanin which gives skin color and also protects cells against UV damage Contains no blood supply and thus continually sheds at surface Dermis Beneath epidermis Made of connective tissue Contains blood vessels which nourish the layers above, nerves for sensation, and, sweat glands, sebaceous glands (oil), hair roots, and lymph vessels Hypodermis Also known as the subcutaneous layers Mostly composed of adipose tissue (fat) Allows for independent movement of skin but stabilization to underlying tissues Rich blood supply

Accessory Structures of the Skin Sweat glands- Apocrine glands are found at hair follicles, mostly near armpits and the groin and release an odorous liquid; Eccrine glands are watery glands found all over the body for thermoregulation, most numerous on the hands and feet Sebaceous glands- Release an oil (sebum) which helps lubricate the skin and as slightly acidic to discourage bacterial growth Nails- protective keratin plates which cover the fingers and toes Hair – protective rod-like structures made of dead cells and hard keratin protein; color is determined by melanin Arrector pili muscle- Tiny muscle fibers attached to the hair follicles that cause the hair to stand erect; Contract in response to cold or fright

Medical Specialties Related to the Integumentary System Dermatologist-Physician specializing in diagnosing and treating disorders of the skin Plastic surgeon- Physician specializing in surgical restoration and reconstruction of body structures Cosmetic surgeons-Plastic surgeons; Perform operations that are usually done for aesthetic rather than medical reasons such as breast augmentation, liposuction, and facelifts Pathology of the Integumentary System While there are many pathologies of the integumentary system here are some terms which you may encounter more frequently in the medical field. A more complete list of pathologies can be found in chapter 12.

Comedo: noninfected lesion that are referred to as whiteheads (closed) or blackheads (open) Epidermoid cyst (sebaceous cyst): closed sac found just under the skin; Contain yellow, fatty material Anhidrosis (hypohidrosis): lacking sweat in response to heat Trichomycosis axillaris- Superficial bacterial infection of the hair shafts Alopecia areata: autoimmune disorder that attacks the hair follicles Onychocryptosis: ingrown toenai Albinism: genetic condition; deficiency or absence of pigment Chloasma: melasma or the mask of pregnancy Vitiligo: skin condition resulting from the destruction of melanocytes Contusion: injury to tissues without breaking the skin; accumulation of blood within the skin Ecchymosis (bruise): large, irregular area of purplish discoloration Hematoma: usually caused by an injury; swelling of clotted blood trapped in the tissues; often named for the area where it occurs (example: subungual hematoma) Macule (macula): discolored flat spot; less than 1 cm in diameter, such as a freckle Nodule: solid, raised skin lesion Papule: small, raised red lesion Plaque: scaly, solid raised area Verrucae (warts): small, hard skin lesions A wheal (welt): small bump that itches; can appear as urticaria (hives) Abscess: closed pocket containing pus; caused by a bacterial infection Purulent: producing or containing pus Cyst: abnormal sac containing gas, fluid, or a semisolid material Pustule (pimple): small, circumscribed lesion containing pus Vesicle: small blister containing watery fluid; less than 0.5 cm in diameter Bulla: large blister; usually more than 0.5 cm in diameter Abrasion: superficial layers of skin are scraped or rubbed away Fissure: groove or crack-like break in the skin Laceration: torn or jagged wound or an accidental cut wound Ulcer: open lesion resulting in tissue loss around the edges Eczema (atopic dermatitis): result of a malfunction of the body’s immune system Contact dermatitis (CD): localized rash; caused by repeated contact with an irritant Psoriasis (Ps)-Red papules covered with silvery scales Urticaria (hives)- Itchy wheals caused by an allergic reaction Xeroderma (xerosis) -excessively dry skin Gangrene: death of tissue Impetigo: highly contagious bacterial skin infection Tinea (ringworm): fungal infection Scabies: infestation of itch mites-Cause small, itchy bumps and blisters;Burrow into the top layer of human skin to lay their eggs Callus: thickening of part of the skin Keloid: abnormally raised or thickened scar Lipoma: benign, slow-growing fatty tumor Malignant melanoma (MM)- Known as melanoma; the most serious type of skin cancer; occurs in the melanocytes Basal cell carcinoma (BCC)- Malignant tumor of the basal cell layer of the epidermis Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC)-Begin as skin lesions; Appear to be sores that will not heal; May have a crusted look

Word Part Meaning

Note

blephar/o ?

?

-cusis ?

?

irid/o ?

?

kerat/o ?

?

myring/o ?

?

ophthalm/o ?

?

-opia ?

?

opt/o ?

?

ot/o ?

?

phak/o ?

?

presby/o ?

?

retin/o ?

?

scler/o ?

?

trop/o ?

?

tympan/o ?

?

cry/o ?

?

cutane/o ?

?

derm/o, dermat/o ?

?

hidr/o ?

?

hirsut/o ?

?

lip/o ?

?

melan/o ?

?

myc/o ?

?

onych/o ?

?

pil/i, pil/o ?

?

py/o ?

?

rhytid/o ?

?

seb/o ?

?

urtic/o ?

?

xer/o ?

?

actinic keratosis ack-TIN-ick kerr-ah-TOH-sis

?

adnexa ad-NECK-sah

?

albinism AL-bih-niz-um

?

alopecia al-oh-PEE-shee-ah

?

amblyopia am-blee-OH-pee-ah

?

ametropia am-eh-TROH-pee-ah

?

anisocoria an-ih-so-KOH-ree-ah

?

astigmatism ah-STIG-mah-tizm

?

audiometry aw-dee-OM-eh-tree

?

blepharoplasty BLEF-ah-roh-plas-tee

?

bulla BULL-ah

?

capillary hemangioma KAP-uh-ler-ee hee-man-jee-OH-mah

?

carbuncle KAR-bung-kul

?

cataract KAT-ah-rakt

?

cellulitis sell-you-LYE-tis

?

chalazion kah-LAY-zee-on

?

cicatrix sick-AY-tricks

?

cochlear implant KOCK-lee-ar

?

comedo KOM-eh-doh

?

conjunctivitis kon-junk-tih-VYE-tis

?

dacryoadenitis dack-ree-oh-ad-eh-NIGH-tis

?

debridement dah-BREED-ment

?

diaphoresis dye-ah-foh-REE-sis

?

diplopia dih-PLOH-pee-ah

?

dysplastic nevi dis-PLAS-tick NEE-vye

?

ecchymosis eck-ih-MOH-sis

?

ectropion eck-TROH-pee-on

?

eczema ECK-zeh-mah

?

emmetropia em-eh-TROH-pee-ah

?

entropion en-TROH-pee-on

?

erythema er-ih-THEE-mah

?

erythroderma eh-rith-roh-DER-mah

?

esotropia es-oh-TROH-pee-ah

?

exanthem eck-ZAN-thum

?

exfoliative dermatitis ecks-FOH-lee-ay-tiv der-mah-TYE-tis

?

exotropia eck-soh-TROH-pee-ah

?

fluorescein angiography flew-oh-RES-ee- in an-jee-OG-rah-fee

?

folliculitis foh-lick-you-LYE-tis

?

furuncles FYOU-rung-kulz

?

glaucoma glaw-KOH-mah

?

hematoma hee-mah-TOH-mah

?

hemianopia hem-ee-ah-NOH-pee-ah

?

hirsutism HER-soot-izm

?

hordeolum hor-DEE-oh-lum

?

hyperopia high-per-OH-pee-ah

?

ichthyosis ick-thee-OH-sis

?

impetigo im-peh-TYE-goh

?

infectious myringitis mir-in-JIGH-tis

?

iritis eye-RYE-tis

?

keloid KEE-loid

?

keratitis ker-ah-TYE-tis

?

keratosis kerr-ah-TOH-sis

?

koilonychia koy-loh-NICK-ee-ah

?

laser trabeculoplasty trah-BECK-you-loh-plas-tee

?

lipedema lip-eh-DEE-mah

?

lipoma lih-POH-mah

?

macule MACK-youl

?

malignant melanoma mel-ah-NOH-mah

?

mastoidectomy mas-toy-DECK-toh-mee

?

melasma muh-LAZ-mah

?

mydriasis mih-DRY-ah-sis

?

myopia my-OH-pee-ah

?

myringotomy mir-in-GOT-oh-mee

?

necrotizing fasciitis NECK-roh-tie-zing fas-ee-EYE-tis

?

nyctalopia nick-tah-LOH-pee-ah

?

nystagmus nis-TAG-mus

?

onychocryptosis on-ih-koh-krip-TOH-sis

?

onychomycosis on-ih-koh-my-KOH-sis

?

ophthalmoscopy ahf-thal-MOS-koh-pee

?

optometrist op-TOM-eh-trist

?

otitis media oh-TYE-tis MEE-dee-ah

?

otomycosis oh-toh-my-KOH-sis

?

otopyorrhea oh-toh-pye-oh-REE-ah

?

otorrhea oh-toh-REE-ah

?

otosclerosis oh-toh-skleh-ROH-sis

?

papilledema pap-ill-eh-DEE-mah

?

papilloma pap-ih-LOH-mah

?

papule PAP-youl

?

paronychia par-oh-NICK-ee-ah

?

pediculosis pee-dick-you-LOH-sis

?

periorbital edema pehr-ee-OR-bih-tal eh-DEE-mah

?

petechiae peh-TEE-kee-eye

?

photophobia foh-toh-FOH-bee-ah

?

pneumatic retinopexy RET-ih-noh-peck-see

?

presbycusis pres-beh-KOO-sis

?

presbyopia pres-bee-OH-pee-ah

?

pressure ulcer preh-shr uhl-sr

?

pruritus proo-RYE-tus

?

psoriasis soh-RYE-uh-sis

?

ptosis TOH-sis

?

purpura PUR-pew-rah

?

purulent PYOU-roo-lent

?

radial keratotomy ker-ah-TOT-oh-mee

?

rhytidectomy rit-ih-DECK-toh-mee

?

rosacea roh-ZAY-shee-ah

?

scabies SKAY-beez

?

scleritis skleh-RYE-tis

?

scleroderma sklehr-oh-DER-mah

?

seborrheic dermatitis seb-oh-REE-ick der-mah-TYE-tis

?

sensorineural hearing loss sen-suh-ree-NOOR-al

?

squamous cell carcinoma SKWAY-mus

?

stapedectomy stay-peh-DECK-toh-mee

?

strabismus strah-BIZ-mus

?

tarsorrhaphy tahr-SOR-ah-fee

?

tinea TIN-ee-ah

?

tinnitus tih-NIGH-tus

?

tonometry toh-NOM-eh-tree

?

tympanometry tim-pah-NOM-eh-tree

?

urticaria ur-tih-KARE-ee-ah

?

verrucae veh-ROO-kee

?

vertigo VER-tih-go

?

vitiligo vit-ih-LYE-goh

?

vitrectomy vih-TRECK-toh-mee

?

xeroderma zee-roh-DER-mah

?

xerophthalmia zeer-ahf-THAL-mee-ah

?