Definitions

• Learning
  • The relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior due to experience.
• Conditioning
  • The ability to connect stimuli (the changes that occur in our environment) with responses (behaviors or other actions).

Goals

• Describe how Pavlov’s early work in classical conditioning influenced the understanding of learning. Pavlov's work showed that people subconsciously learn and form associations between similar events or objects that influence basic biological factors.
• Review the concepts of classical conditioning, including unconditioned stimulus (US), conditioned stimulus (CS), unconditioned response (UR), and conditioned response (CR).
  • Classical conditioning: learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior.
  • Unconditioned stimulus (US): something (such as food) that triggers a naturally occurring involuntary response.
  • Unconditioned response (UR): the naturally occurring involuntary response (such as salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus.
  • Neutral stimulus (NS): something (such as a bell) that is not associated with a naturally occurring involuntary response.
  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar involuntary response as the unconditioned stimulus.
  • Conditioned response (CR): the acquired involuntary response to the formerly neutral stimulus.
• Explain the roles that extinction, generalization, and discrimination play in conditioned learning.
  • Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
    • If Pavlov’s dogs responded to a musical tone the same way they respond to a bell, that stimulus has generalized
  • Discrimination: The ability to distinguish stimuli that may resemble the original conditioned stimulus
    • If Pavlov’s dogs did not respond to a musical tone the same way the responded to a bell, the dogs have discriminated that stimulus
  • Elimination: When a conditioned response decreases over time from repeated exposure to the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus also being present.
• Outline the principles of operant conditioning.
  • Operant conditioning—learning that occurs based on the consequences of voluntary behavior.
  • Law of effect—a principle stating that responses that create a typically pleasant outcome in a particular situation are more likely to occur again in a similar situation, whereas responses that produce a typically unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again in the situation.
  • Reinforcement—any event that strengthens or increases a behavior.
  • Punishment—any event that weakens or decreases a behavior.
  • Skinner used “positive” and “negative” in the mathematical sense, whether an event is presented (added=positive) or removed (subtracted=negative)
• Explain how learning can be shaped through the use of reinforcement schedules
  • Ratio
    • Every x number of responses.
  • Interval
    • Every x number of .../hours/minutes/seconds.
  • Continuous
    • Reinforcement/punishment is given out after every event.
  • Partial
    • Sometimes reinforced/punished and sometimes not.
  • Fixed
    • Predictable
  • Variable
    • Not predictable
  • Continuous Reinforcement/Punishment
    • Behavior stops soon after the reinforcement/punishment stops.
  • Variable Reinforcement/Punishment
    • Behavior persists for a longer time after the reinforcement/punishment stops.

Observational Learning

Learning through the observation of others.

Insight

The eureka moment. When something finally clicks, or sinks in.

Conditioning

Learning through voluntary or involuntary behaviors.

Classical (Involuntary, Reflexive)

Association with a stimuli. The responses are the same. The difference is in what causes the response. Behavior is involuntary or reflexive in nature and is either turned on or turned off.

• Classical conditioning: learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior.
• Unconditioned stimulus (US): something (such as food) that triggers a naturally occurring involuntary response.
• Unconditioned response (UR): the naturally occurring involuntary response (such as salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus.
• Neutral stimulus (NS): something (such as a bell) that is not associated with a naturally occurring involuntary response.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar involuntary response as the unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned response (CR): the acquired involuntary response to the formerly neutral stimulus.
• Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
  • If Pavlov’s dogs responded to a musical tone the same way they respond to a bell, that stimulus has generalized
• Discrimination: The ability to distinguish stimuli that may resemble the original conditioned stimulus
  • If Pavlov’s dogs did not respond to a musical tone the same way the responded to a bell, the dogs have discriminated that stimulus
• Elimination: When a conditioned response decreases over time from repeated exposure to the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus also being present.

Prolonged Exposure Therapy

Helps to treat occurrences of classical conditioning that are harmful, such as PTSD--where fireworks may be generalized with the stimuli of bombs dropping. Prolonged exposure will help eliminate the conditioning, by exposing the person to fireworks, without bombs dropping.

Pavlov's Dog Experiment

Food (US) = Salivating (UR) -> Bell (NS) + Food = Salivating -> Bell (CS) = Salivating (CR).

Marketing

Friends (US) = Happiness (UR) -> Coke (NS) + Friends = Happiness -> Coke (CS) = Happiness (CR).

Operant (Voluntary)

Association with the consequences of your actions. Behavior is either increasing or decreasing in frequency. Are consequences for your actions being added or are they being removed?

• Operant conditioning—learning that occurs based on the consequences of voluntary behavior.
• Law of effect—a principle stating that responses that create a typically pleasant outcome in a particular situation are more likely to occur again in a similar situation, whereas responses that produce a typically unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again in the situation.
• Reinforcement—any event that strengthens or increases a behavior.
• Punishment—any event that weakens or decreases a behavior.
• Skinner used “positive” and “negative” in the mathematical sense, whether an event is presented (added=positive) or removed (subtracted=negative)

Examples of Operant Conditioning

A parent conditioning a child to to homework

• Authoritative Parenting
  • Generally uses positive reinforcement because they are demanding, yet also respond with praise or a reward when a task is met.
    • Helps with long-term adherence to authority.
• Authoritarian Parenting
  • Generally uses positive punishment because they are demanding and only respond if something is not done.
    • Good for immediate adherence--get out of the street! Not good for long-term emotional health or adherence to authority.

A insurance company conditioning a client to drive safely

Guinea pigs conditioning their owner to feed them

Reinforcement Schedules

• Ratio

  • Every x number of responses.

• Interval

  • Every x number of .../hours/minutes/seconds.

• Continuous

  • Reinforcement/punishment is given out after every event.

• Partial

  • Sometimes reinforced/punished and sometimes not.

• Fixed

  • Predictable

• Variable

  • Not predictable

• Continuous Reinforcement/Punishment

  • Behavior stops soon after the reinforcement/punishment stops.

• Variable Reinforcement/Punishment

  • Behavior persists for a longer time after the reinforcement/punishment stops.